Early Literacy in Education Essay

Introduction â€Å"Literacy learning has a profound and lasting effect on the social and academic lives of children. Their future educational opportunities and career choices are directly related to literacy ability. Since early childhood is the period when language develops most rapidly, it is imperative that young children are provided with a variety of developmentally appropriate literacy experiences throughout each day, and that the classroom environment is rich with language, both spoken and printed. Early childhood teachers are responsible for both understanding the developmental continuum of language and literacy and for supporting each child’s literacy development. Literacy learning begins at birth and develops rapidly during the preschool period. The main components of literacy—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—should all be encouraged and supported through conversations and activities that are meaningful to the child and that involve adults and peers. Each child’s interest and motivation to engage in literacy-related activities are evident before that child is able to read or write conventionally. Children should be provided with environments that encourage literacy exploration and their emergent reading and writing behaviors should be valued and supported by their teachers. Effective language and literacy programs provide children who do not speak English with opportunities for listening, speaking, reading, and writing in both English and the home language. It is important for the teacher to recognize the need to make modifications in the presentation of vocabulary, directions, storytelling, reading, and other oral language communication when working with children who do not speak English as their home language. These modifications may include the use of visual aids, scaffolding, repetition, rephrasing, and modeling. † (NJ Department of Education, 2009) Gone are the days in which manual labor was the backbone of our society. We are a people living in the information technology age. Everything that is done from brewing your morning cup of coffee to setting your I-pod to wake you up morning and everything in between requires reading. Without reading a person will face great adversity in day to day living let alone success. It is now critical that every child and adult be able to read and comprehend. Over the past ten years, the amount of information that requires one to read, utilize writing skills, problem solving, and critical thinking has grown enormously. Studies have shown that one of the strongest indicators of a child’s success in school is the educational attainment of his or her parents. As you can imagine, this can plainly effect more than the person who is illiterate. This can also be a death sentence of poverty and destitution as the child grows into adulthood just as doors open for the life-long reader. Today we will discuss: what is needed to prepare children to read, the methods used to help recognize phonics and begin the transition into emergent readers, and what can be done to encourage reading in the future. Preparation In order for a child to begin reading parents must begin assisting their child from an early age. â€Å"Every step a child takes toward learning to read leads to another. Bit by bit, the child builds the knowledge that is necessary for being a reader. Over their first 6 years, most children †¢Talk and listen. †¢Listen to stories read aloud. †¢Pretend to read. †¢Learn how to handle books. †¢Learn about print and how it works. †¢Identify letters by name and shape. †¢Identify separate sounds in spoken language. †¢Write with scribbles and drawing. †¢Connect single letters with the sounds they make. †¢Connect what they already know to what they hear read. †¢Predict what comes next in stories and poems. †¢Connect combinations of letters with sounds. †¢Recognize simple words in print. †¢Sum up what a story is about. †¢Write individual letters of the alphabet. †¢Write words. †¢Write simple sentences. †¢Read simple books. †¢Write to communicate. †¢Read simple books. Children can take more than one of these steps at the same time. This list of steps, though, gives you a general idea of how your child will progress toward reading. † (Helping your child become a reader) While these ideas may seem structured, it is also important to allow children to be creative and use their imagination. Although reading is imperative, too many arrangements and rules can turn a child off and lead to feelings of resentment, anger, and resistance. Reading should be set to the tone and pace of the child. Emergent Readers As the standards of education change a consistent factor remains the focus on reading. Early childhood educators must provide an atmosphere that is both developmentally stimulating to the student while also meeting the standards of education. The methods used to help recognize phonics and begin the transition into emergent readers vary from student to student. Without the foundation of phonics research shows that a child will not learn to read. All children must know the alphabet in order to communicate effectively. Phonics cannot be drilled into the child. This will only produce memorization. Instead, educators must understand a child’s individual needs as well as balance. There is no true need to teach phonics as a separate subject. Most children will develop a sense of curiosity from their own knowledge, ideas, and interest. There will of course be a select few that may benefit from a more formal instruction. When children have a reason to know this will provide enthusiasm. For example: The first letter and sound a child typically learns may be his or her own name. A teacher may ask Billy to identify the first letter of his name. â€Å"B† replies Billy. â€Å"What sound does the letter B make? † â€Å"Buh-buh-Billy exclaims the child. Billy is now inspired and driven to want to learn the other sounds the letters make. Parents and teachers must also realize that reading will contrast greatly as children grow. Below is a list that may help each parent as well as teacher: â€Å"Infants †¢Talk, read, and sing to infants–they learn from everything they see and hear even in the first stages of life. †¢Take your baby to the park, zoo, and the store with you. Bring her attention to objects, signs, and people. †¢Always make books a part of your baby’s toy selection, even if he enjoys handling books more than being read to. As your child grows, point out pictures of objects and offer their names. Eventually, your child will be able to name the pictures, too. †¢Encourage associations between symbols and their meaning–as they get closer to toddlerhood, children may begin to recognize familiar signs for products and logos for cereal or fast food restaurants. Toddlers †¢Help toddlers make the transition from baby talk to adult language by repeating their words and expressions correctly without reprimanding them. †¢Let toddlers â€Å"read† their favorite picture books by themselves while you remain close by to comment. Or, pause before a familiar word as you read to your toddler, and let her fill in the missing word. This works especially well with rhymes or repeated refrains. †¢Provide magnetic and block letters to introduce a toddler to the spelling of his name. †¢Before you take your toddler on a new type of outing, read about the events you are about to witness. Talk with your child about the experience, and follow up with further reading to reinforce learning. Preschooler †¢Add new books to your child’s collection, but keep reading old favorites. Your preschooler may know them by heart now–this represents an important step in learning about reading. †¢Continue to take children shopping with you, and let them help identify products with coupons. Let preschool children join in as you follow a recipe. †¢Take books on long trips with you to encourage reading as entertainment. School-age children †¢Continue to read to your child, even if she has learned to read already. Take turns reading pages of your favorite books. †¢Encourage story writing by listening to the stories children tell. †¢Play word games like Scrabble or Boggle with children and introduce them to crossword puzzles. † (NAEYC, 1998) Encouragement â€Å"The first step in teaching a child to read is encouraging them to read. † – Unknown. This is a proven fact in the development of children. A child that is encouraged has no limit on what he or she can achieve. As educators and parents the responsibility begins early. Reading will encourage children to develop a life-long love for learning. If knowledge is power, books are full of it. Why is reading so important to children? â€Å"The Media Awareness Network emphasizes the potentially negative effects watching television can have on kids. This includes increased exposure to violence, sexual content, and adversely affecting a child’s course of development. In addition, watching television teaches children habits that promote a sedentary lifestyle, contributing to childhood obesity. Meanwhile, reading has been proven to enhance a child’s life by assisting cognitive development and helping children build language skills. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization points out that reading helps children develop a sense of empowerment. It can also help children develop social and communication skills. Furthermore, good reading skills increase educational opportunities and may dramatically increase a child’s chances for academic and lifelong success† (Lendabarker, 2010) There is a vast assortment of options for parents to help encourage reading at home. One of the longest running programs to encourage reading is Pizza Hut’s â€Å"BOOK IT† program. â€Å"This provides an incentive to motivate children to read. BOOK IT! runs every school year from October through March. The teacher sets a reading goal for each child in the class. A tracking chart and reproducibles are included to make it that much easier. As soon as a child meets the monthly reading goal, the teacher gives him or her a Reading Award Certificate. † (Pizza Hut) Flexible BOOK IT! goals are based on reading ability. Number of books, number of pages, or number of minutes – they all work. BOOK IT! can also be used with the reading curriculum or as support for comprehension or intervention programs. For children not reading independently, the goal can be set where a parent or others read to the child. Fun Pizza Hut is proud of all BOOK IT! readers! The restaurant manager and team congratulate every child for meeting the monthly reading goal and reward them with a free, one-topping Personal Pan Pizza, BOOK IT! card and backpack clip. Other ideas to encourage reading include: †¢Make a habit of reading to your child every day, whether she is a one-year-old or a 10-year-old. †¢When your child is able to, have her read to you. You can take turns reading chapters in a simple chapter book, for example. †¢Get a library card for your child. Go to the library every week and take out several books. †¢Be aware of your child’s interests and direct your child to related books. †¢Try to find a series that she really likes and will want to continue reading. †¢Provide a comfortable reading area, with good lighting, in your home. †¢Discuss books with your child. †¢Buy books for your children that are related to their special interests. †¢If your child is a reluctant reader and not reading on grade level, buy her hi/lo books (books with a high interest level, low vocabulary). †¢Talk to your child’s teacher and ask for suggestions. †¢If your child likes incentives and the computer, enroll in an online book group. †¢If your child really enjoys a particular author, check with your librarian about other authors or books she might enjoy. †¢Children also often enjoy the opportunity to read children’s magazines As parents and educators, it is more important to spend time reading with your child on a consistent on-going basis. The method you select is not nearly as important as the time spent actually reading together. Conclusion Show me a child that can read and research will show you a child on his or her way to succeed. Parents, educators, grandparents, aunts, uncles all need to take time to read to a child. All too often parents rush out to buy the latest video game or latest toy. Where is that enthusiasm for the love of reading? How many children even see their parents read? We live in an age where technology surrounds us at every given moment; that does not negate the need to read and to take an active role in the education of children. The research speaks for itself. Reading equals succeeding. Works Cited Bagert, B. C. (1993). Helping your child learn to read. Retrieved February 25, 2010, from Kids Source: http://www. kidsource. com/kidsource/content/learread. html Lendabarker, K. (2010, January 3). Encouraging Children to Read. Retrieved February 25, 2010, from Suite101: http://earlychildhood. suite101. com/article. cfm/helping_children_develop_good_reading_habits NAEYC. (1998). Phonics and Whole Language Learning. Retrieved February 25, 2010, from Education. com: http://www. education. com/reference/article/Ref_Phonics_Whole/ NJ Department of Education. (2009, Unknown Unknown). Retrieved February 16, 2010, from www. state. nj. us: www. state. nj. us/education/cccs/2009/PreSchool. doc Pizza Hut. (n. d. ). Pizza Hut. Retrieved February 25, 2010, from Pizza Hut BOOK IT! program: http://www. bookitprogram. com/bedtimestory/ Uknown. (n. d. ). Literacy Guide. Retrieved February 24, 2010, from Bankstreet: http://www. bankstreet. edu/literacyguide/early2. html Unknown. (unknown, unknown unknown). Helping your child become a reader. Retrieved February 19, 2010, from Ed. gov: http://www2. ed. gov/parents/academic/help/reader/part4. html.

The Rainforest

Rainforest's are a tropical forest that are found around the earths equator. The rainforest is found in Idonesia, South America and west and central Africa. The average temperatures are about 25-30 degrees. The rainforests are important because they provide homes for animals, plants and human, they also stabilise the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide. However in the 21st century they are under threat because of logging for timber, mining, road building, pasture for cattle ranching, crops and settlements. This essay will be researching 4 statements on the valuable resources that the rainforest offers and if sustainable devlopment can truly be introduced in the rainforest. â€Å"The rainforest is a valuable resource and its preservation is important to us all† The rainforest provides homes for about 70 million people, it also provides habitats for over 50% of the earths species of plants and animals. It also contains many plants which could provide new drugs and medicines in the furture e.g. Curae is a poison on Waorani hunting arrows which we also use as a relaxant in modern surgery. The rainforest also stablise's the climate by absorbing carbon dioxide this also helps reduce the rate of global warming and they reduce soil erosion by intercepting the rainfall and also keep water courses free from sediment. If deforestation was to continue millions of animals and plants would lose their habitats and possibly become extinct. Thousands of indigenous people of the rainforest would lose their homes and their way of life. We would also lose many cures for dieases and medicines that we could discover in the furture. Lots of damage to the climate and the enviorment could also mean that global warming would increase at a quicker rate. â€Å"The indigneous people of the rainforest respond positively to the challenges of their natural enviorment and act as stewards of the forest† Their are about 250 million indigenous people and about 5 thousand tribes, two of the tribes are Maorani and Kayapo. They live of the forest by using it to make food medicines and products to sell to make money such as brazil nuts. The indigenous people should be stewards of the forest because they live there, it is their home and they lived there for thousands of years which gives them historical rights to the Rainforest, they also want to protect it from damage and the dieases people have brought in. â€Å"There are some people who wish to exploit the rainforest. Explotation of the forest has positive and negative effects.† Explotation of the rainforest can be negative and positive. Cattle ranching is positive because it helps feed the countrys own people and they can sell it to other countrys to make money, the negative side of it is the grass that grows in rainforest area is of poor quality and cattle do not thrive, also milk yields tend to be low and after a few years the land is no good. Logging is good because it gets us useful materials such as mahogany, sapele and lauan, which grow no where else in the world, the negative of this is one hactare of rainforest is cut down just to log one mahogany tree. The positive of mining is that we get many good and useful metals such as gold, silver, aluminium, iron ore, copper and zinc. The negative of it is many trees get chopped down and mercury which is used in gold mining causes contamination. Road building does not cause much deforestation but the settlements in its way do get destroyed, it does do a lot of good it allows people to get in and out of the forest easily and quickly. Oil exploration does alot of damage to the forest, many trees have to be chopped down for the pipe lines and disturbs the wild life. The toxic chemicals do alot of contamination to the rivers and soil. the positive of it is oil is a very useful resource. Farming is one of the largest causes of forest loss. Huge plantations of banana and African oil palm now stand where rainforest once did, often farmers form other places who do not the farming techniques needed for forest enviorments, which means the soil soon becomes depleted, requiring further forest to be cleared. Hydro-electric dams are enviormentally friendly but to build them a lot of forest is destroyed. The positive of all these things is that it means money for the devloping countries and also opens up lots of jobs for the local people. The negative of these things is that they all do at least some damage to the rainforest. â€Å"A balance can be achieved between sustained devlopment and conservation of the rainforest† National park areas would make money from visiting tourists and would protect an area of the rainforest. Brazil nut trade is a good way for the indigenous people to make money, they pick them with out harming the trees and then turn them into an oil, which they sell to the body shop and the body shop turns the oil into a conditioner. Rubber tapping is where a liquid called latex is extrated from plantation trees, the latex is then processed to make a solid material called rubber, it is then sold and exported to other countrys. Enviormentally friendly logging is where only the trees that they want are cut down with out damaging the surrounding enviornment. The definition of eco tourism is â€Å"responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people.† there are seven principles to this: * Minimize impact * Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect * Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts * Provide direct financial benefits for conservation * Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people * Raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climate * Support international human rights and labor agreements Eco tourism is something everybody can participate in. Bibliography Bunce-Contexts Arnell-Geography Worksheets given to me by teacher

Comparison and Contrast of two U.S Presidential Inaugural Addresses Essay

Comparison and Contrast of two U.S Presidential Inaugural Addresses - Essay Example The paper includes the analysis of the ethos theme of these speeches. The use of ethos is prominent in both the speeches and this theme is majorly used by both the presidents in their speeches. As in the beginning of the speech President Obama used ethos by crediting the audience for his selection and by thanking them and President Bush for the efforts which they have rendered. He also referred to the sacrifices which the people gave in the past as he said: â€Å"I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. I thank President Bush for his service to our nation, as well as the generosity and cooperation he has shown throughout this transition.† The reference to the past and complete credibility to the audience is an efficient way of appealing to their emotions as people usually do have a soft corner regarding their ancestors and their sacrifices. We can see the very same methodology and use of ethos in President Bush’s speech in which he said: â€Å"As I begin, I thank President Clinton for his service to our nation. And I thank Vice President Gore for a contest conducted with spirit and ended with grace. I am honored and humbled to stand here, where so many of America’s leaders have come before me, and so many will follow.† ... Thanking the previous presidents also reflected that these presidents do not hold grudges against any of the previous leaders and they are humbled by the efforts which the previous leaders have rendered for the state. Both President Obama and President Bush used Ethos to provoke the sense of responsibility in citizens of United States of America. President Obama convinced people that the United States of America can prosper only if each and every individual takes hold of his responsibility and works toward their common goal which is the common benefit and welfare of all the citizens. Ethos usually requires strong and persuasive selection of vocabulary and Obama's strongly framed sentences did the job well and he persuaded the people that they are responsible for the prosperity of the country and for the wellbeing of their fellow citizens as well. It was declared by him: â€Å"For as much as government can do and must do, it is ultimately the faith and determination of the American p eople upon which this nation relies. It is the kindness to take in a stranger when the levees break, the selflessness of workers who would rather cut their hours than see a friend lose their job which sees us through our darkest hours. It is the firefighter's courage to storm a stairway filled with smoke, but also a parent's willingness to nurture a child, that finally decides our fate.† The same phenomenon was delivered by President Bush in these words: â€Å"What you do is as important as anything government does. I ask you to seek a common good beyond your comfort; to defend needed reforms against easy attacks; to serve your nation, beginning with your

Money and banking Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Money and banking - Assignment Example In this context, Commerce National Bank reports interest-sensitive assets of $870 million and interest-sensitive liabilities of $625 million during the coming month. This implies that Commerce National Bank is an asset sensitive one. Since Commercial National Bank is asset sensitive, if interest rates rise, the bank will definitely enjoy a net interest margin. The bank’s productivity on interest income and earning interest will raise its basis point for basis point in line with the market. If the rates fall, it will have its net interest margin compressed. Securitization Securitization of assets refers to the process of collecting various sorts of debts such as car loans, mortgages, or credit card debts and packaging them as bonds, collateralized mortgage obligations, or as pass-through securities. They are then sold to investors. This process can consist of any type of financial assets and it is aimed at reinforcing liquidity in the marketplace. It is also vital for smaller i nvestors to buy shares in a more complex pool. The most amenable assets used in the securitization process include equipment, trucks, automobiles, home equity loans, recreational vehicles, and credit cards. Alternatively, asset-backed deals especially for exotic assets may include: consumer loans, computer leases, time shares, trade receivables, and small commercial loans. Securitization offers numerous benefits to investors, purchasers, and financial institutions. It provides financial lending institutions with a technique to remove assets from their balance sheets, thus raising the pool of obtainable capital to be lent out. In addition, lending institutions are given a chance to utilize their assets to get funds, and most specifically, replacing the lower-yielding assets with higher-yielding ones. From the lending institutions and the regulator’s perspectives, there are some risks associated with the securitization process. This may involve such risks as banks using the bes t quality assets in the procedure, which implies that the remaining portfolio may be more dangerous averagely. This will lead to an increase in the lending institution’s capital requirements. Banks and other lending institutions choose to do this because investment activities balance the benefits that loans offer. In overall, investments demonstrate less credit risks as compared to loans, as well as permitting lending institutions to expand to various places that loans cannot allow. Investment securities also give extra liquid reserves wherever more money is required, help banks to reduce their contact with huge taxes, serve as a prevaricate against losses as a result of the evolving interest rates, and offer collateral as needed by the regulations. There are prepayment and interest rate risks associated with securitized assets. This happens when borrowers pay off or default particular loans in the securitized-asset pool prematurely. The reason behind this may be due to the f all of interest and the substitution of old loans at lower loan rates. Prepayment risk may noticeably lower the security values backed by such loans and alter their appropriate maturities. Further, the considerable drawbacks in these investments such as declining in their market values as the principal assets may lead to increase in default rates. Liquidity Total assets Sales of bank assets are projected to be $18 million Total

Critical Analysis of Puerto Picans as an Ethnic Group Research Paper

Critical Analysis of Puerto Picans as an Ethnic Group - Research Paper Example In 1511 after decades of abuse the Tainos rebelled against the Spaniards that colonized them. The revolt was a massacre as the European soldiers had superior weapons and better combat training. Thousands of Tainos died in this revolt. In the aftermath of the revolt the European settlers had a shortage of free labor. They decided to keep their oppressive ways by importing slaves from Africa. After centuries of Spain having total control over the affairs of Puerto Rico in 1818 the Spanish King gave transfer of land ownership to the settlers in the island. In 1868 the Puerto Rican people revolt against the Spanish government in a claim for independence. The historical event was called â€Å"El Grito de Lares†. Over 400 Puerto Ricans fought in this conflict led by Ramon Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis. The attempt to take over the government was unsuccessful. One of the biggest abuses in the history of Puerto Rico was the existence of slavery. On September 22, 1873 the S panish courts abolished slavery in Puerto Rico. At the time there were nearly 30,000 slaves in Puerto Rico which composed 5% of the population (Int. #3, 2011). Puerto Rico was a colony of Spain for four centuries. In 1898 the American-Spaniard war occurred between the United States and Spain. The United States won the war and one of the prices of victory was gaining full control over Puerto Rico. The United States awarded U.S. ... Since both languages are used in Puerto Rico the locals sometimes referred to their mixed language as Spanglish. Puerto Rico is a very family oriented culture. Unmarried children often live with their parents until their 30’s. Most adults marry in their mid 20’s. The male is supposed to be the provider and head of the family, but in the 21st century it is customary for both partners in a relationship to work. When they get married women continue to use their surname. The normal greeting used in Puerto Rico by males is to shake hands, while females kiss themselves in the cheek. Puerto Ricans are very friendly people. When tourists come to the island people feel it is their obligation to serve and help the tourists in any way they can. Hand gestures and facial expression are often used during conversations. Puerto Ricans have a high tone of voice and proximity when talking to others is customary. In Puerto Rico visiting friends and particularly family members is considere d a social obligation. Most weekends sons and daughters visit their parents. When a person visits your home the host must offer their guests drinks and food. The use of alcoholic beverages is customary in most family and friend gatherings as well as special events. The most consumed beer in Puerto Rico is a locally produced brand called Medalla. During Christmas season children receive gifts on two occasions. On Christmas day when Santa Claus brings them gifts and on the 6th of January which is the date the Three Wiseman brought gifts to baby Jesus when he was a newborn. There are many holidays that are celebrated in Puerto Rico. During a holiday the government does not work and many businesses depending on the holiday also close down. A list of the holidays celebrated in Puerto

Should Christopher Columbus be celebrated for Western Civilization or Essay

Should Christopher Columbus be celebrated for Western Civilization or not - Essay Example Elsewhere in the Americas, living standards are high and are improving. Nevertheless, these successes, which can be traced directly from Columbus' first voyage, were also dearly bought. Millions of native lives were lost, through disease and intentional mistreatment. Several civilizations were effectively destroyed so that a new civilization based on settlers' stock could grow. As such, Columbus clearly has a mixed reputation. These two views of Christopher Columbus are both espoused by different historical schools. The argument in a sense boils down to one of politics. Those who are more inclined to be anti-establishment and romantic would suggest that Columbus' legacy is one of bloodshed and misery. Those who are more realist suggest that civilizations with better technology and organization will always supersede those who lack these qualities. In a sense it was the destiny of the advanced European nations to take over the Americas and build their own colonies there. The other civi lizations such as the Aztecs and the various tribes of North America were simply unable to compete. There are two main historians who support each of these views. The former view is espoused by Kirkpatrick Sale; the latter by Felipe Fernandez-Armesto. The latter view is more sensible. Kirkpatrick Sale makes a powerful argument about Columbus, but it is all too political and too based on hyperbole. Motives are ascribed to Columbus which he simply never held. The years of colonization were years of â€Å"subjugation and violence† according to Sale (Sale, 152). Nothing good ever came of them. The Spanish were rapacious and built nothing and simply destroyed the environment. This is too simplistic a view of the world. According to Sale, the natives were vastly superior to the Europeans who came to the Americas. He describes how their technology was much better, but sounds quite foolish doing so: â€Å"'Indian societies had a variety of technologies, some quite sophisticated and many well beyond anything comparable in Europe at the time . . . and certainly could have developed others if they felt any need to do so, particularly in regard to food supply. If they did not, there was likely to be a good reason: if they did not anywhere use the plow, for instance, that may have been because their methods of breaking the soil with a planting stick worked just as well with a tenth of the effort, or because they had learned that opening up and turning over whole fields would only decrease nutrients and increase erosion, or because their thought-world would not have allowed such disregardful violence† (Sale, 322). This is an incredibly idealized view and one that is not unlike those who believe in the noble savage. A critic of the book rightly points out that â€Å"Mr. Sale treats the varied ways of life that actually prevailed in the Americas as if all Indians were the same, and confuses time as well by quoting late-20th-century Indian spokesmen as though th eir words applied universally to every tribe and people† (McNeil). Fernandez-Armesto's perspective is more sensible. He looks to historical context. He also sees contemporary political correctness for what it is: In the opinion of one self-styled Native American spokesman, 'he makes Hitler look like a juvenile delinquent'. This sort of hype is doubly unhelpful: demonstrably false, it makes the horrors of the holocaust seem precedented and gives comfort to Nazi apologists by making

Time Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Time Managment - Essay Example I definitely hoped that I would pick up some learning from this as I definitely did not want to waste time (that would have been truly ironic if that had happened. I was a tad bit skeptical as the seminar started, but the binder with the learning material caught my eye immediately. To allow oneself to be carried away by a multitude of conflicting concerns, to surrender to too many demands, to commit to too many projects, to want to help everyone in everything is itself to succumb to the violence of our times. Frenzy destroys our inner capacity for peace. It destroys the fruitfulness of our work, because it kills the root of inner wisdom which makes work fruitful.1 I was slightly taken aback because this seemed highly philosophical. And more importantly, what if I took on too many projects, all of them were properly scheduled and I made sure every hour of my working day counted. As the day went on I realized that this was not just about day planners and to do lists, this was about more than that. Indeed, both day planners and task lists play an important role in time management, but it was important to find out why we wanted to use time efficiently. Indeed if we were saving time what we were saving it for. We certainly could not bank time, so what was the end result there Both managing appointments and keeping to do lists were low hanging fruits. These had to be done anyway. But the purpose of this seminar was to show that there is a lot more to time management. All activities in our life could be put in one of four quadrants. They had to be either urgent and important, urgent and not important, not urgent and important, not urgent and not important. It was not about just getting things done it was getting the things which mattered done. Things which were urgent and important , are emergencies. A good time manager would avoid having too many items in this q uadrant. Plan out the important things so that they never become emergencies. Urgent and not important, these are time consuming non critical activities , they either should be ignored or atleast be moved to the back burner. A Ringing phone for example cries for your attention but you are in the middle of an important project. Let the voicemail get it. You can pick up and call all your voicemails at one time later on. Important and not urgent is the quadrant you want all your entire to do list. No emergencies and you are working only important things. Not important and not urgent. These are items which have to be tossed. They serve no purpose at all. After this we briefly went over the POSEC method. POSEC is an acronym. PRIORITIZE-Your time and define your life by goals. ORGANIZING-Things you have to accomplish regularly to be successful. (Family and Finances) STREAMLINING-Things you may not like to do, but must do. (Work and Chores) ECONOMIZING-Things you should do or may even like to do, but they're not pressingly urgent. (Past-times and Socializing) CONTRIBUTING-By paying attention to the few remaining things that make a difference. (Social Obligations)2. It was important to learn that managing was not just about managing individual minutes or hours. It was a big picture which was trying to be put together here consisting of numerous small elements. The numerous small elements in themselves meant nothing unless an overall big picture came into place. Continuing on the philosophy of time management , we made a small detour into

Life-cycle reverse logistics support policy of GENCO Research Paper

Life-cycle reverse logistics support policy of GENCO - Research Paper Example GENCO thus collaborates with Hershey into achieving ZWL status at the Western distribution centre, where its runs its operations. As part of the initiative of reclaiming value from the waste materials, the process begins by removing trash comparator from the facility, followed emptying all the contents in the parking lot. Sorting process then begins where results are subject to classify as food/product waste, cardboard, trash, plastics, wood scraps, and broken pallets. All of these products could be subject to divert from going into the landfills. The focus then shifts into identifying the new ways of collecting recyclables all through the facility followed by training teammates on the new procedures. Volunteers coming from each shift thus form the ZWL committee that helps in identifying the best practices for recycling. The placement of receptacles was subject to plan strategically in a manner that coincides with areas where the recycled materials were subject to generate commonly in order to maximize use. GENCO currently works towards achieving ZWL status at the Midwest distribution centre, in Edwardsville, IL, all of which run operations for Hershey. GENCO has the policy of reclaiming value from all returned and recycled materials as part of its integrated reverse logistics solutions. Recycling offers the last chance of reoccupying value in any product before it ends up into the landfill. GENCO’s recycling services has the potential of maximizing recovery of value on every product, which includes part and materials in the end-of-life product stream. Currently, the company has the potential of reclaiming and extracting value from 95% of all products that could previously end up in the landfill. GENCO accomplishes this task through de-manufacturing, which is a process entailing disassembly of the finished goods in order to yield resalable components, scrap

The Salem Community Essay Example for Free

The Salem Community Essay Throughout The Crucible, conspiracy and lies lead to the corruption and downfall of the 17th century Salem community. From the title it is evident that this pious society is a crucible or a vessel filled with boiling, bubbling characters waiting to react at any moment. Arthur Millers own experiences of the 1950s McCarthy witch trials, where individuals were accused of being Communists, inspired him to write the play and he is able to provide a realistic insight into the pain and suffering certain characters faced as a result of the accusations. In the God-fearing community of Salem, hysteria runs out of control and the malicious lies of certain characters destroy lives. Characters become more suspicious of each other and anxiety is paramount for those characters that stand accused. Through the use of stage directions, Miller highlights the tension between the Proctors within their struggling marriage. The turmoil within the marriage may be viewed as a microcosm of the greater conflict that exists in Salem as a whole; they no longer feel comfortable with each other as they try in vain to rebuild their marriage. Physical distancing and formal language is used, to show the strain within their relationship. Miller introduces several court officials to escalate tension before the intense interrogations have even started. This clever use of symbolism reveals the importance of the poppet, as it may decide Elizabeths future at the hands of the malicious Abigail. Similarly, Mary Warrens vulnerability and isolation in the courtroom are enhanced as Miller positions her away from those who wish to see her suffer. Throughout the play, Miller escalates tension with the frequent references to Abigail Williams name both in the Proctors household and the courtroom, where court officials are fooled into taking the girls side, thereby encouraging an emotional reaction from the audience. Regular pauses and stilted dialogue builds the suspense to a crescendo as a very emotional within a setting the dramatic and tragic climax approaches. Elizabeth replies to John with one word answers as they struggle to communicate. Her short responses reveal an uneasy situation where both characters do not feel comfortable or relaxed with one another. The uncomfortable environment creates an image of depression which augments the relationships tension. Miller creates a depressing atmosphere in his description of the Proctors house being low, dark and rather long. It suggests that there is no warmth and this is echoed in the state of their marriage as there appears to be little affection between the two characters. Consequently the audience is encouraged to feel sympathetic towards the couple as the tension between them is obvious.

Why College Students in Metro Manila Take Up Part-Time Jobs Essay Example for Free

Why College Students in Metro Manila Take Up Part-Time Jobs Essay A part-time job is a form of labour where in one works fewer hours per week than that of someone who works at a full time job. Those who have part-time jobs work for less than thirty to thirty-five hours a week. May it be capable, post-graduate adults or under-aged students, the amount of people with part time jobs have increased over the past 20 years in most developed countries. â€Å"There are many reasons for working part time, including the desire to do so, having ones hours cut back by an employer and being unable to find a full-time job. † [] Many students work part time jobs to supply themselves with additional funds. Working part-time is ideal for students, since it allows them to balance their academic needs with their school needs. This is one of the things some students in High School look forward to when they graduate and step up to college, to have freedom and a preview of the world that is waiting for them once they graduate. They want a peek of the â€Å"real world† as some say, which is the world of adults, the working world. Though some are forced to go through with this as their economic status demands it, there are still many advantages when it comes to taking up part-time jobs. Collegiate students are given a bigger work load than any other department but many still go through with it despite their amount of tasks. It is because for many hardworking students, like ones who had graduated with many honours, it looks good on a resume. The employers usually see this as a good thing for they know that their candidate for employment can handle a large amount of work properly. With a good looking resume, it would not be that hard to get a job. Moreover, parents would like to give their children a sense of responsibility in which they tell their children to apply for part time jobs so as to let them experience what it feels like to have their own money to budget. Statement of the Problem This study aims to analyze the reasons why college students take up part time  jobs and how they manage their time. In a more detailed manner, it is to answer the following questions: 1. What are the reasons college students take up part time jobs? a. Is it an absolute necessity? 2. How much do they earn per week? 3. On what do they spend their money on? 4. Do they give part of their payment to their parents? a. How many percent? 5. Are they able to manage their time? a. How many hours a day do they work? b. Do they have other activities/responsibilities? 6. What motivates them to keep working? a. Who gave them the idea of applying for their jobs they have? 7. How long have they been working? Scope and Limitations The topic is about collegiate students with part time jobs. The study will be conducted to know how students of different schools in the collegiate department juggle their studies with part time jobs. The study will tell about how they cope with the sudden change in their habits and their time management. The study will also tackle the reasons why they took up their current jobs, if the job is a necessity or if it is of their own desire. The study is time pressured. The time to work on the study is seven months. The respondents will be various students of a few different colleges around the Cavite and Metro Manila area, School Year 2012-2013, who have a job that requires them to work for less than 39 hours a week. Significance of the Study The study is important to many current and upcoming fourth year students who are planning to take up a part time job in their collegiate years. It would help them to further understand the advantages and disadvantages of what they are hoping to get themselves into. This research will help them be sure of what they want. This would also help them find a way to manage their time once they are there. The study would also help the students already in college. It would help those with part time jobs feel easier knowing other people go through the same things they do. The study will also help them manage their time better. It would also help those collegiate students who do not have jobs. It would give them a better view. The study will give them a good, first person point of view insight. Furthermore, this study would also help teachers and parents to understand the stress and pressure the collegiate students with part time jobs go through. This study will open doors for them to be able to create a stronger family bond. Research Design 8. What are the reasons college students take up part time jobs? 9. How much do they earn per week? 10. On what do they spend their money on? 11. Do they give part of their payment to their parents? 12. Are they able to manage their time? 13. What motivates them to keep working? 14. How long have they been working? Input Process 1. To analyze and assess the effects of part time jobs to collegiate students 2. Gathering data by means of handing questionnaires to the respondents. 3. Output 1. Learning how collegiate students with part time jobs cope up with their studies 2. Warning those who plan to take up part time jobs if they are not ready for it 3. Encouraging readers of the study to take the  challenge of having a part time job once they are ready Fig. 1 – Analysis of the Reasons Why College Students Take Up Part Time Jobs and How They Manage Their Time Definition of terms 1. College- is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. 2. Part time job- is a form of employment that carries fewer hours per week than a full-time job. 3. Job- a regular activity performed in exchange for payment. 4. Student- is a learner, or someone who attends an educational institution. 5. Economy- consists of the economic systems of a country or other area; the labour, capital, and land resources; and the manufacturing, production, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area. 6. Time management- is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity. 7. Budget- is a financial plan and a list of all planned expenses and revenues. It is a plan for saving, borrowing and spending. 8. High school- is a term for education system used in parts of the English-speaking world to describe institutions which provide all or part of secondary education, but not always the highest years of basic education, which can be called a secondary school or secondary college or other terms, depending on the nation or region. 9. Teenager- is a young person whose age is between thirteen and nineteen. 10. Labour- productive activity, especially for the sake of economic gain. 11. Responsibility- the state or fact of being responsible. 12. Adult- a person who is fully grown or developed or of age. 13. Pressure- the exertion of force upon a surface by an object. 14. Graduate- a person who has received a degree or diploma on completing a course of study, as in a university, college or school. 15.Employer- is a person or institution that hires employees or workers. 16. Employee- contributes labour and expertise to an endeavour of an employer and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. 17. Motivation- is the psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviours. 18. Respondent- is a person who is called upon to issue a response to a communication made by another. 19. Stress- A mentally or emotionally disruptive or upsetting condition occurring in response to adverse external influences and capable of affecting physical health, usually characterized by increased heart rate, a rise in blood pressure, muscular tension, irritability, and depression. 20. School- is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or pupils) under the direction of teachers.

Additional Support Needs and Inclusion in Education

Additional Support Needs and Inclusion in Education Behaviour Children Mainstream Exploring Difference and Diversity As a Teacher of Additional Support Needs in a secondary school in North East Scotland I intend to investigate Difference and Diversity and the move from Special Educational Needs to Additional Support Needs and Inclusion. How it affects my own practice and that of my school. Having been a mainstream secondary school teacher for 14 years before becoming an Additional Support Needs teacher, I have learnt from experience and listening to colleagues, that behaviour seems to play a major part in the inclusive classroom. Colleagues have commented in the past that they don’t mind those children with ‘Special Needs’, it is those with behavioural difficulties which cause the problems. This train of thought is corroborated by Paul Croll and Moses (2000). They interviewed Head Teachers from both Special Schools and Mainstream, and LEA Officers. ‘The view that children whose behaviour challenged the mainstream should be in separate provision was a widespread one: â€Å"We cannot cope with EBD [emotional and behavioural difficulties] children in the mainstream.† (Primary Head) â€Å"I am very committed to integration in principle, but it is very difficult to have disturbed children in mainstream schools.† (Primary Head) â€Å"Some emotionally and behaviourally disturbed children make too great demands on staff. It’s not fair on other children.† (Primary Head) (Croll and Moses 2000, p6) Also, cited by J Allan (1999, p10), Armstrong and Galloway have noted a tendency of teachers to reconstruct children with emotional or behavioural difficulties as ‘disturbed’ (1994:179), with the implication that these are outside the responsibilities of mainstream classroom teachers. It is for this reason I intend to look at the behaviour of a small group of first year pupils in my classroom, and try to put into place some strategies to help reduce the frequency of unwanted behaviours, which hopefully, will go some way in promoting inclusion within my classroom practice and thus enabling them to access more mainstream classes in the future. The unwanted behaviour could stem from a number of factors including their home life, environmental influences, peer pressure, personality, self confidence and self esteem, to name but a few; which will be discussed later. When considering difference and diversity, many people think of stereotypes, such as, cultural diversity, gender differences etc. The problem with a stereotype however, is that no one individual conforms to it exactly, and yet, in the educational institute it is individuals that we are dealing with therefore, we place the emphasis on exploration of individual differences, and not stereotypes. Do these differences really mean that some children and young people are uneducable and have to be segregated and placed in special schools? Previous trains of thought were that those with ‘special needs’ would be better off in special schools. By placing them in such institutes, the education of the rest would not be hindered. According to Thomas and Loxley (2007) one of the first Special Schools in the UK was The School of Instruction for the Blind, in Liverpool 1791, also mentioned in The Warnock Report (p8). During the Nineteenth Century Special Schools were established for the blind, deaf and dumb children. During the 20th Century Special Schools grew in number until they catered for around 2% of the school population. In the early part of the century people with learning difficulties were referred to as feebleminded, imbeciles and idiots. Many of the special schools were started by voluntary organizations for pupils with specific disabilities. They were seen as more helpful and less intimidating to students with disabilities. ‘The term special educational needs began to come into use in the late 1960s as a result of increasing dissatisfaction with the terminology used in the Handicapped Pupils and School Health Service Regulations (1945), which classified handicapped children into ten categories according to their main handicap. There was, moreover, an increasing awareness of the frequency of learning and other difficulties affecting children’s progress and adjustment in ordinary schools’. (Ronald Gulliford, (Ed) 1992 p1) Before the Warnock Report it was commonly believed that special educational needs stressed that the deficits were from within the child. This came from a medical or psychological point of view which implied that the individual was in some way ‘in deficit’. The requirement for special educational provision was related to the concept of disability of mind or body. The 1944 Education Act defined 11 forms of disability but did not include groups of children who were considered to be uneducable due to the extent of their handicap. Disabilities were described in medical terms except for educational sub-normality and maladjustment which were more difficult to clarify, suggesting that there was a cut-off point between normal and abnormal. In 1970 legislation was introduced which stated that local education authorities had to make special educational provision for all types of disability, but this did not specify whether it should be in separate schools or classes. This resulted in special education being considered as that which only took place in special schools. (Sally Beveridge 1999) The Warnock committee was set up to review the provision for children with mental and physical disabilities and produced the report in 1978. It promoted a wide range of special needs, rather than discrete categories and helped to form the basis of the 1981 Education Act’s policies on special educational needs (SEN), which introduced a different approach to the definition of children with SEN: ‘A child will have a special educational need if s/he has a learning difficulty requiring special educational provision. The ‘learning difficulty’ includes not only physical and mental disabilities, but also any kind of learning difficulty experienced by a child, provided that it is significantly greater than that of the majority of children of the same age’. (1981 Education Act, p1) The Act stated that the education of children with SEN should be carried out in ordinary schools where possible. The Act emphasized an approach that is in favour of inclusion and integration, rather than separation and isolation. This approach recommended that children with special needs should be treated as individuals, and that the child should have a learning support teacher with them in the classroom, rather than being taken out of the class. Since the Warnock report and the 1981 Education Act, legislation has been gradually catching up with the recommendations. The most recent legislation is The Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004, in which the term ‘Special Educational Needs’ has been replaced with ‘Additional Support for Learning’. The Act states that ‘A child or young person has additional support needs for whatever reason, the child or young person is, or is likely to be, unable without the provision of additional support to benefit from school education provided or to be provided for the child or young person. In relation to a prescribed pre-school child, a child of school age or a young person receiving school education, provision which is additional to, or otherwise different from, the educational provision made generally for children or, as the case may be, young persons of the same age in schools (other than special schools) under the management of the education authority for the area to which the child or young person belongs.’ (Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004, p1) This definition seems to be similar as in the 1981 Education Act previously mentioned, although the Education (Scotland) Act 1981 did not mention that the ‘learning difficulty’ included physical and mental disabilities, as did the Act in England. Does this mean there are no real changes in policy? Is everything exactly the same as before but with a different name? The Additional Support for Learning Act introduced a new framework for supporting children and young people. The Education (Scotland) Act 1981 required education authorities to make a generalprovision in their areas to meet such needs. The 2004 Act requires education authorities to make adequate and well-organized provision for additional support as is required by the child or young person with additional support needs’. This goes further than making a general provision, such as special schools. The education authority has a duty to provide the necessary additional support to every individual child or young person who needs it to benefit from education. It also has to identify children and young people with additional support needs and to review their continuing needs and the sufficiency of steps taken to meet them. Staff and resources from within the particular schools attended by these children or young people have a role in enabling an education authority to fulfill these duties, as do staff and resources from its own services and from other agencies. (Focusing on Inclusion, p7) Children may need additional support for a wide variety of reasons. A child’s education could be affected by issues resulting from: learning environment inflexible curricular arrangements inappropriate approaches to learning and teaching more able children children with English as an additional language family circumstances homelessness parental drug or alcohol misuse children who are parents children who are carers children looked after by the local authority disability or health need motor or sensory impairment specific language impairment autistic spectrum disorder learning difficulties ADHD depression or other mental health problems social and emotional factors children who are being bullied children who are suffering racial discrimination children who are bullying children with behavioural difficulties (Govan Law Centre, internet source) This is far from being a complete list and does not mean that every child fitting one of the above categories necessarily has additional support needs. This will depend on the amount and type of support required by the individual child. There are many more factors that are now considered under The Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004 compared with the previous Act. Children with English as an additional language are now included whereas previously they were not, they were not viewed as having special needs, but they are now recognized as needing support to access the curriculum. Also, parents now have the right to: Ask their child’s education authority to find out whether your child has additional support needs. Request a specific type of assessment and/or examination for your child when their education authority is proposing to formally identify whether they have additional support needs. Receive information or advice about a child’s additional support needs. (Enquire 2006) All local authorities should have policies in place to ensure they are abiding by the act. The authority in which I work has various policies and guidelines in place, including: Policies Access to Education for Pupils with Disabilities/Additional Support Needs Strategy 2005-08 Race Equality Policy and Strategy 2005-08 Sensory Support Service Quality Assurance Policy Additional Support Needs Policy Framework. Policies Under Development Disability Equality Scheme Guidelines Guidance on the Education of Looked After Children and Young People Improving Access to the School Environment to Communication for Parents and Visitors. How good is our Educational Psychology Service Draft Snapshot. Improving Physical Access to Education. Riding for Pupils with Additional Support Needs. Safety and Good Practice on Education Excursions. Supporting Pupils access to the curriculum using ICT (ASPECTS). Swimming for Pupils with Additional Support Needs. Guidelines Under Development Autism Support. English as an Additional Language. Integrated Assessment Framework Draft Operational Guidelines Motor Coordination Difficulties. Sensory Support Service Guidelines. The Additional Support Needs Policy Framework was produced in January 2007 as 6 Pathways to Policy booklets and the principles behind the policy are printed in each booklet: ‘The Additional Support Needs Policy Framework and the Pathways to Policy Pack for Supporting Children’s and Young People’s learning ensure that all children and young people are provided with the necessary support to help them work towards achieving their full potential with respect to their personality, talents and mental and physical abilities. It promotes collaborative working among all those supporting children and young people’. In September 2005 HM Inspectorate of Education was asked by Scottish Ministers to monitor and evaluate the consistency, effectiveness and efficiency of education authorities in implementing the Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004 and to ensure that procedures for implementation were in line with the duties of the Act 2004 and the associated Code of Practice. In 2007 HMIE produced the Report on the implementation of the Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004. The report states that most authorities were effective in ensuring that their procedures for implementing the Act were in line with the duties of the Act and the associated Code of Practice. The most effective had built on existing good practice and developed joint strategic approaches with other agencies to meet the needs of children and young people with additional support needs. However, authorities varied in their effectiveness in implementing the key requirements of the Act. (HMIE 2007) The report provided guidelines for improvement and was made available to schools in February 2008, to enable them to evaluate their implementation and effectiveness of current legislation; the Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004 and Inclusion. Following this report some schools including the school, in which I work, are holding CPD sessions for staff on the implementation of the Act and Inclusion, and ways forward. Inclusion is not a new phenomenon, it has been recommended in educational legislation since the Warnock Report in 1978. In fact it has been spoke about during the 1960’s, As cited by Josephine Jenkinson, Dunn’s (1968) argument against segregated special education and in favour of integration was that advances in the development of individualized, self-paced curricula in regular education would allow students with disabilities to be accommodated in the regular class, if they were provided with a programme designed by a specialist teacher to meet their needs and in which they could progress at their own pace. Integration could be made possible by radical departures in school organization, involving a greater emphasis on team teaching, ungraded classes and flexible groupings. (Jenkinson, 1996. p 15-16) This implies that there should be a change in the curriculum and how it is delivered, to meet the needs of all pupils, and that specialist teachers should be working with classroom teachers to plan and deliver the curriculum. Historically â€Å"integration† was the term used in the 1980s, but this came to be seen as placing disabled children in a mainstream setting, without providing the support they required and allowing them to be there as long as they were able to fit into the existing systems and cultures. It is now acknowledged that the inclusion of disabled, and children with additional needs, involves going much further, and changing the policies, practices and attitudes within the school. The Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education provides the following definitions of inclusion in education, from the Index for Inclusion in education (Booth and Ainscow 2002), also cited by Thomas and Vaughan 2004 (p183): Valuing all students and staff equally. Increasing the participation of students in, and reducing their exclusion from, the cultures, curricula and communities of local schools. Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of students in the locality. Reducing barriers to learning and participation for all students, not only those with impairments or those who are categorized as `having special educational needs. Learning from attempts to overcome barriers to the access and participation of particular students to make changes for the benefit of students more widely. Viewing the difference between students as resources to support learning, rather than as problems to be overcome. Acknowledging the right of students to an education in their locality. Improving schools for staff as well as for students. Emphasizing the role of schools in building community and developing values, as well as in increasing achievement. Fostering mutually sustaining relationships between schools and communities. Recognizing that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society. (Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education, internet source) Why do we need inclusion? Whatever their disability or learning difficulty children have a part to play in society after school. An early start in mainstream playgroups or nursery schools, followed by education in ordinary schools and colleges, is the best preparation for an integrated life. Education is part of, not separate from, the rest of childrens lives. Disabled children can be educated in mainstream schools with appropriate support. As discussed by Ainscow (1999), Inclusion is a feature of the Salamanca Statement which was agreed by 92 governments and 25 international organizations in 1994. ‘The statement argues that regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all’.( Ainscow 1999, p74) Cited by Thomas and Vaughan (2007), Rustemier argues that segregated schooling breaches all four principles underpinning the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. These principles are: Non-discrimination (Article 2) – all children should enjoy all rights without discrimination and on the basis of equality of opportunity; The best interests of the child (Article3); The right to life, survival and development (Article 6) – development is meant in its broadest sense, including physical health but also mental, emotional, cognitive, social and cultural, and ‘to the maximum extent possible’; and The views of the child (Article 12) – children have the right to be heard and to have their views taken seriously in matters affecting them. Rustemier goes on to argue that inclusion has come to mean almost everything but the elimination of exclusion. And that the current education system excludes and segregates large numbers of children from mainstream education because of learning difficulty, disability, and behaviour, despite claiming to have inclusion as its goal. (Thomas and Vaughan, 2004, p 23-24). Joe Whittaker discusses, in an article which appeared in the Greater Manchester of Disabled People’s Magazine ‘Coalition’, the damage he believes is inflicted on disabled children and their local communities by a system of special schooling and segregation. He further argues that inclusive education will be prevented from being implemented in any meaningful way whilst this system continues. ‘Over the last 50 years different governments have told us that we are moving towards integration, where disabled children and non-disabled children work together in the same school and where everyone has equal opportunities. However, simultaneously the same governments have stated that there will always be a need for some children to go to segregated special schools, and legislation was introduced to ensure this would happen’. (Joe Whittaker 2001: pp. 12-16) [See appendix1] Despite the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the growing number of people in favour of Inclusive mainstream schools and the closure of Special Schools, Government statistics show that there has been an increase in the number of Independent Special Schools in Scotland over the past few years. The number of publicly funded special schools in individual areas of Scotland has also changed. Some areas such as east Ayrshire show an increase while others show a decrease in the number of special schools. There has been a significant increase in pupils with Additional Support Needs attending both Primary and Secondary mainstream schools. There has also been an increase in the number of pupils with IEP’S attending mainstream secondary schools. [See tables1, 2: appendix 2] There are many reasons why secondary pupils are deemed to need additional support in school. According to the statistics there are 1,816 pupils with Social, emotional and behavioural difficulty; 1,403 of these being boys and only 413 girls. The statistics show that there are significantly more boys with additional support needs than girls. [See table4, appendix 2] A Scottish Executive National Statistics Publication gives the following information, along with the statistic tables in appendix 2: Special schools There were 34 independent special schools in 2004, compared to 33 schools in 2003, and 32 in 2002. There were 1,132 pupils in independent special schools in 2004, an increase of eight per cent over 2003. There were 334 teachers (FTE) in independent special schools in 2004, a 17 per cent increase from 2003. There were 3.4 pupils per teacher in 2004, a decrease from 3.7 in 2003. Special Educational Needs There were 1,349 pupils with a Record of Needs and/or an Individualised Educational Programme. This is an increase of 105 (eight per cent) from 2003. The largest categories of main difficulty of learning were social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (22.6 per 1,000 pupils) and specific learning difficulties in language and/or mathematics including dyslexia (6.7 per 1,000 pupils). (Scottish Executive, Internet Source) Why is it that there seems to be more boys than girls identified as requiring Additional Needs? One reason could be that boys are seen as more boisterous than girls, thus reported as having behaviour problems, another reason could be that more assessments of boys have been carried out, compared to girls; resulting in an increase of incidences and prevalence. There is also the general assumption that girls mature more quickly than boys. Cited in ‘A study of children and young people who present challenging behaviour’ – literature review, Cole et al (1998) (1999) established that there were ten to twelve times more boys than girls in English EBD schools and over three times as many boys as girls in PRUs (Pupil Referral Units). This creates very real difficulties in ensuring that girls have a suitable peer group if they attend a ‘mixed’ EBD school (see also Cruddas and Haddock, 2001). Egelund and Hansen (2000) noted a 5:1 boy:girl ratio in segregated provision in Denmark. In Scotland, Lloyd and O’Regan (1999) report that over 80% of the pupils in specialist provision for SEBD are boys. Fortin and Bigras (1997), note that boys heavily outnumber girls in Canadian literature on EBD. (Ofsted 2005) This literature review was commissioned  by Ofsted as part of a large-scale survey to inform the report ‘Managing challenging behaviour’. Ofsted commissioned the University of Birmingham to carry out this research to inform subsequent fieldwork, and gives the assumption that the Gender imbalance is International, and Social Emotional and Behaviour difficulties is one of the categories that creates the most problems. In November 2002 BBC News Online reported Schools in England were identifying more boys than girls as needing special help with their education. ‘New statistics on the gender of those with special needs reveal for the first time that 64% are boys and 36% girls. The gender gap is even wider in the most severe cases those with formal statements of need: 72% are boys and 28% girls. Experts say the reasons are unclear but that controversially a large factor might be teachers perceptions of what constitutes problematic behaviour’. It was also reported that children with special educational needs are being turned away from schools because of fears that they could affect their position in exam league tables. Children with’ special needs’ account for almost nine-tenths of permanent exclusions from primary schools, and six-tenths of those from secondary schools. Almost five times as many boys as girls are excluded from school. This corroborates Rustemier’s argument that the education system excludes large numbers of children, especially those deemed to have ‘special needs’. The report stated that girls and boys are more or less equally likely to have physical disabilities, but boys are far more likely than girls to have specific learning difficulties, autistic disorders or emotional or behavioural problems. Medical reasons were discussed, and Richard Byers, an SEN expert in Cambridge Universitys faculty of education, was quoted as saying that some forms of special need notably autism were diagnosed much more often in boys than in girls. More and more cases of autism were being identified, so more boys were said to have SEN. But there was a bigger, greyer aspect to the issue, especially where children in mainstream schools were identified as having social, emotional or behavioural difficulties again, many more of them boys. Florid felt that we identify one kind of social, emotional or behavioural difficulty which tends to be in boys more often than girls. This might be that for all kinds of social and cultural reasons teachers perceived boys to be more problematic than girls. So there was an over-identification of boys with SEN and probably an under-identification of girls needs. The Department for Education was quoted as saying that there appears to be some evidence that professionals, including teachers, are likely to identify boys as having SEN particularly in relation to behaviour. The BBC also reported that the editor of The Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, Lani Florian, said the gender gap might be as high as 10 to one in the case of emotional and behavioural problems. People had put forward various theories, to do with genes and hormones, for instance but none had been conclusive. It has been said that the classroom is just a friendlier environment for girls but thats just a theory too, Dr Florian said. We really dont know. (Gary Eason, BBC News online 2002) This report has been discussed by various people on a GTC forum as summarized by Allan Witherington (efacilitator) Many of the contributors have offered observations from their own experiences in the classroom that confirm the often described differences in attitude, learning style and attainment between boys and girls. Boys were said to be noisier and to lose interest more quickly, whereas girls were quieter, more reflective and better able to deal with written tasks. No-one contested the fact that the gender gap is real. A persistent theme was the need for teachers to deliver lessons offering a variety of learning experiences to cater for the different learning styles of all those in the class’. This was said to be ‘a tall order’. When discussing the quote from a DfES spokesperson as saying, There appears to be some evidence that professionals, including teachers, are likely to identify boys as having SEN particularly in relation to behaviour. The question was asked â€Å"are they suggesting that the perceptions of the professionals are incorrect? Are we just missing the sp ecial needs of girls because they are less obvious†? There seemed to be no answer to this! (GTC forum, internet source) As well as the gender issue, and it being reported that boys are more likely to be identified with Autism and EBD, according to the previously mentioned statistics table 4 (appendix 2), in 2006 there were 19 reasons for support for secondary pupils with Additional support needs compared with The 1944 Education Act which defined eleven categories of disability. Perhaps the more recent Government Policies and initiatives have contributed to the increase! With the concept of Inclusion there are now more children and young people identified with additional needs attending mainstream schools whereas in previous years they would have been segregated into special schools, the additional rights of the parents could mean that more parents are requesting assessments for their children if they think there is a problem, resulting in more children needing additional support. There are many other reasons which were not previously recognized as Special Educational Needs such as some family circumstances, bullying etc.

Endurance in Night by Eli Wiesel Essay -- essays research papers

In the Face of Adversity   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Most of the important things in the world have been accomplished by people who have kept on trying when there seemed to be no help at all.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Dale Carnegie believed that perseverance could overcome even the harshest obstacles. Perseverance is inspired by a purpose, an unsatisfied drive to achieve a goal. During a cataclysmic event, only people with a purpose endure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Night, Eliezer endures the Holocaust with a purpose to keep his father alive. He is a 15 years old boy when he and Chlomo began their journey through the perilous camps of Auschwitz, Buna, and Buchenwald. Eventually, Eliezer loses his faith in God but not in his father. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“He had felt that his father was growing weak, he had believed that the end was near and had sought this separation in order to get rid the burden, to free himself from an encumbrance à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ My God, Lord of the Universe, give me strength never to do what Rabbi Eliahouà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s son has doneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?(87). The motivation Eliezer has to endure is to keep his father alive. Even though his father is a constant burden, Eliezer is determined never to desert his father like Rabbià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Eliahouà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s son attempts. Even when Chlomo becomes sick with dysentery, Eliezer stays by his side. He gives his father his own soup, forfeits his own bread, and even tries to get a doctor to help. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“For a ration of bread, I managed to change beds with a prisoner in my fatherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s bunkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (1...

alan turing Essay -- essays research papers

Alan Turning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alan Turning is known to be a pioneer of many facets of the computer age. The digital computer, artificial intelligence, memory subroutines, the Turning Machine, the Turing Test, and the application of algorithms to computers are all ideas somehow related to this man. Alan Mathison Turing was born in Paddington, London, on June 23, 1912. He was a precocious child and began his interests in science and mathematics at a young age, but was never concerned about other right-brain classes such as English. This continued until an important friend of his passed away and set Turing on a path to achieve what his friend could no longer accomplish. When his friend Christopher Morcom died, Turing was launched into thoughts in physics about the physical mind being embodied in matter and whether quantum-mechanical theory affects the traditional problem of mind and matter. Many say today that this was the beginnings of Turing’s Turning Machine and the test still used today for artificial intelligence, the Turing Test. Soon after his public schooling Turing began working on his undergraduate at King’s College. Here he became interested in the readings of Von Neumann’s quests into the logical foundations of quantum mechanics. Through these readings Turing was believed to structure his thinking from the emotional states that he had been suffering from to a more valid form of thought. Turing earned a fellowship at King’s college and the following year the Smith’s Prize for his work in probability theory. Afterward, he chose a path away from pure math into mathematical logic and began to work on solving the Entscheidungsproblem, a problem in decidability. This was an attempt to prove that there was a method by which any given mathematical assertion was provable. As he began to dive in to this he worked on first defining what a method was. In doing so he began what today is called the Turing Machine. The Turing Machine is a three-fold inspiration composed of logical instructions, the action of the mind, and a machine which can in principle be embodied in a practical physical form. It is the application of an algorithm embodied in a finite state machine. The Turing Machine is a simple kind of computer. It is limited to reading and writing symbols on a tape and moving the tape along to the left or right. The tape is marke... ...at today is known as the Turing Test. This was a test where a person would ask questions from both a human and a machine without knowing which was which. If after a reasonable amount of time the difference between the two was not obvious, then the machine was thought to be somewhat intelligent. A version of this test is still used today by the Boston Museum of Computers to host a contest of the best artificial machines for the Loebner Prize. Turing continued working on the digital computer and ideas in artificial intelligence until he died on June 7, 1954. He was found with a half-eaten apple loaded with cyanide, the half-eaten apple a familiar symbol of innocence. Some say he had committed suicide over an embarrassing incident with a 19-year old student , while his mother says he was just performing another experiment with household chemicals and became careless. Whichever it may be, Alan Turing passed away and left the world with many raw ideas to work out. In my opinion, the biggest contribution that he left with us was his idea of a single machine running off a finite number of algorithms to perform multiple tasks. This being the vision of the computers we all use today.

Basic Principles of Democracy Essay

Democracy comes from the Greek word, â€Å"demos,† meaning people. In democracies, it is the people who hold sovereign power over legislator and government. Democracy is a form of government in which power is held by people under a free electoral system. It is derived from the Greek ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ·ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ±Ãâ€žÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ±, â€Å"popular government†] which was coined from ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ®ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (dÄ“mos), â€Å"people† and ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ¬Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (kratos), â€Å"rule, strength† in the middle of the 5th-4th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BC. In political theory, democracy describes a small number of related forms of government and also a political philosophy. Even though there is no universally accepted definition of ‘democracy’, there are two principles that any definition of democracy includes. The first principle is that all members o f the society have equal access to power and the second one that all the members enjoy universally recognized freedoms and liberties. There are several varieties of democracy some of which provide better representation and more freedoms for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not carefully legislated to avoid an uneven distribution of political power with balances such as the separation of powers, then a branch of the system of rule is able to accumulate power in a way that is harmful to democracy itself. The â€Å"majority rule† is often described as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without responsible government it is possible for the rights of a minority to be abused by the â€Å"tyranny of the majority†. An essential process  in representative democracies are competitive elections, that are fair both substantively and procedurally. Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech and freedom of the press are essential so that citizens are informed and able to vote in their personal interests. Popular sovereignty is common but not a universal motivating philosophy for establishing a democracy. In some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights. Many people use the term â€Å"democracy† as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include additional elements such as political pluralism, equality before the law, the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances, due process, civil liberties, human rights, and elements of civil society outside the government. In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary sovereignty (though in practice judicial independence is generally maintained). In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles are also applicable to private organizations and other groups. Though democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece other cultures have significantly contributed to the evolution of democracy such as Ancient India, Ancient Rome, Europe, and North and South America. Democracy has been called the â€Å"last form of government† and has spread considerably across the globe. Suffrage has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), but still remains a controversial issue with regard to disputed territories, areas with significant immigration, and countries that exclude certain demographic groups. The contemporary interpretation of democracy from the political point of view is that it is a system of government in which a country’s political leaders are chosen by the people in regular, free and fair elections. In a democracy, people have a choice between different candidates and parties who want the power to govern. The people can criticize and replace their elected leaders and representatives if they do not perform well. The people are sovereign — they are the highest authority  Ã¢â‚¬â€ and government is based on the will of the people. Elected representatives at the national and local levels must listen to the people and be responsive to their needs. That is why democracy depends upon a literate, knowledgeable citizenry whose access to information enables it to participate as fully as possible in the public life of their society and to criticize unwise or tyrannical government officials or policies. Citizens and their elected representatives recognize that democracy depends upon the widest possible access to uncensored ideas, data, and opinions. All people should have the right to form their own opinions and express them individually or in peaceful assemblies. Free societies cr eate a â€Å"marketplace of ideas† where people exchange their views on any number of issues. Although nuances apply to the world’s various democracies, certain principles and practices distinguish democratic government from other forms of government. †¢ Democracy is government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all citizens, directly or through their freely elected representatives. †¢ Democracy is a set of principles and practices that protect human freedom; it is the institutionalization of freedom. †¢ Democracy rests upon the principles of majority rule, coupled with individual and minority rights. All democracies, while respecting the will of the majority, zealously protect the fundamental rights of individuals and minority groups. †¢ Democracies guard against all-powerful central governments and decentralize government to regional and local levels, understanding that local government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible. †¢ Democracies understand that one of their prime functions is to protect such basic human rights as freedom of speech and religion; the right to equal protection under law; and the opportunity to organize and participate fully in the political, economic, and cultural life of society. †¢ Democracies conduct regular free and fair elections open to all citizens. Elections in a democracy cannot be facades that dictators or a single party hide behind, but authentic competitions for the support of the people. †¢ Democracy subjects governments to the rule of law and ensures that all citizens receive equal protection under the law and that their rights are protected by the legal system. †¢ Democracies are diverse, reflecting each nation’s unique political, social, and cultural life. †¢ Democracies rest upon fundamental principles, not uniform practices. †¢ Citizens in a democracy not only have rights, they have the responsibility to participate in the political system that, in turn, protects their rights and freedoms. †¢ Democratic societies are committed to the values of tolerance, cooperation, and compromise. †¢ Democracies recognize that reaching consensus requires compromise and that it may not always be attainable. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, â€Å"intolerance is itself a form of violence and an obstacle to the growth of a true democratic spirit.† Principles of Democracy People from around the world have identified the basic principles, which must exist in order to have a democratic government. These principles often  become a part of the constitution or bill of rights in a democratic society. Though no two democratic countries are exactly alike, people in democracies support many of the same basic principles and desire the same benefits from their government. The following are examples of the principles referred to as signposts of democracy, which will be used throughout this lesson: 1. Citizen Participation One of the most basic signposts of a democracy is citizen participation in government. Participation is the key role of citizens in democracy. It is not only their right, but it is their duty. Citizen participation may take many forms including standing for election, voting in elections, becoming informed, debating issues, attending community or civic meetings, being members of private voluntary organizations, paying taxes, and even protesting. Participation builds a better democracy. 2. Equality Democratic societies emphasize the principle that all people are equal. Equality means that all individuals are valued equally, have equal opportunities, and may not be discriminated against because of their race, religion, ethnic group, gender or sexual orientation. In a democracy, individuals and groups still maintain their right to have different cultures, personalities, languages and beliefs. 3. Political Tolerance Democratic societies are politically tolerant. This means that while the majority of the people rule in a democracy, the rights of the minority must be protected. People who are not in power must be allowed to organize and speak out. Minorities are sometimes referred to as the opposition because they may have ideas which are different from the majority. Individual citizens must also learn to be tolerant of each other. A democratic society  is often composed of people from different cultures, racial, religious and ethnic groups who have viewpoints different from the majority of the population. A democratic society is enriched by diversity. If the majority deny rights to and destroy their opposition, then they also destroy democracy. One goal of democracy is to make the best possible decision for the society. To achieve this, respect for all people and their points of view is needed. Decisions are more likely to be accepted, even by those who oppose them, if all citizens have been allowed to discuss, debate and question them. 4. Accountability As George Washington said â€Å"Government is not reason, it is not eloquence,it is a force! Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master; never for a moment should it be left to irresponsible action.† In a democracy, elected and appointed officials have to be accountable to the people. They are responsible for their actions. Officials must make decisions and perform their duties according to the will and wishes of the people, not for themselves. Government accountability means that public officials – elected and un-elected – have an obligation to explain their decisions and actions to the citizens. Government accountability is achieved through the use of a variety of mechanisms – political, legal, and administrative – designed to prevent corruption and ensure that public officials remain answerable and accessible to the people they serve. In the absence of such mechanisms, corruption may thrive. The primary political accountability mechanism is free and fair elections. Fixed-terms of office and elections force elected officials to account for their performance and provide opportunities for challengers to offer citizens alternative policy choices. If voters are not satisfied with the performance of an official, they may vote them out of office when their terms expire. The degree to which public officials are politically accountable is a function of whether they occupy an elected versus appointed position, how often they are up for reelection, and how many terms they can serve. Legal accountability mechanisms include the whole legal framework – constitutions, legislative acts, decrees, rules, codes, and other legal instruments that proscribe actions that public officials can  and cannot take and how citizens may take action against those officials whose conduct is considered unsatisfactory. An independent judiciary is an essential requirement for the success of legal accountability, serving as a venue where citizens bring claims against the government. Legal accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ethics statutes and codes of conduct for public officials, outlining unacceptable practices †¢ Conflict of interest and financial disclosure laws, requiring public officials to divulge the source of their income and assets so that citizens may judge whether the actions of those officials are likely to be influenced improperly by financial interests †¢ â€Å"Sunshine† laws, providing the press and the public access to government records and meetings †¢ Citizen participation requirements, dictating that certain government Judicial review, providing courts the power to review the decisions and actions of public officials and agencies. Administrative accountability mechanisms include offices within agencies or ministries and practices within administrative processes designed to ensure that the decisions and actions of public officials account for the interest of the citizens. Administrative accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ombudsmen, responsible for hearing and addressing citizen complaints; †¢ Independent auditors who scrutinize the use of public funds for signs of misuse; †¢ Administrative courts, that hear citizens’ complaints about agency decisions; †¢ Ethics rules protecting so-called whistleblowers – those within government who speak out about corruption or abuse of official authority – from reprisals. 5. Transparency For government to be accountable the people must be aware of what is happening in the country. This is referred to as transparency in government. A transparent government holds public meetings and allows citizens to attend. In a democracy, the press and the people are able to get information about what decisions are being made, by whom and why. 6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections One way citizens of the country express their will is by electing officials to represent them in government. Democracy insists that these elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed from office in a free and fair manner. Intimidation, corruption and threats to citizens during or before an election are against the principles of democracy. In a democracy, elections are held regularly every so many years. Participation in elections should not be based on a citizen’s wealth. For free and fair elections to occur, most adult citizens should have the right to stand for government office. Additionally, obstacles should not exist which make it difficult for people to vote. Free and fair elections allow people living in a representative democracy to determine the political makeup and future policy direction of their nation’s government. Free and fair elections increase the likelihood of a peaceful transfer of power. They help to ensure that losing candidates will accept the validity of the election’s results and cede power to the new government. Elections alone do not assure democracy since dictators can use the resources of the state to tamper with the election process. Free and fair elections require: †¢ Universal suffrage for all eligible men and women to vote – democracies do not restrict this right from minorities, the disabled, or give it only to those who are literate or who own property. †¢ Freedom to register as a voter or run for public office. †¢ Freedom of speech for candidates and political parties – democracies do not restrict candidates or political parties from criticizing the performance of the incumbent. †¢ Numerous opportunities for the electorate to receive objective information from a free press. †¢ Freedom to assemble for political rallies and campaigns. †¢ Rules that require party representatives to maintain a distance from polling places on election day – election officials, volunteer poll workers, and international monitors may assist voters with the voting  process but not the voting choice. †¢ An impartial or balanced system of conducting elections and verifying election results – trained election officials must either be politically independent or those overseeing elections should be representative of the parties in the election. †¢ Accessible polling places, private voting space, secure ballot boxes, and transparent ballot counting. †¢ Secret ballots – voting by secret ballot ensures that an individual’s choice of party or candidate cannot be used against him or her. †¢ Legal prohibitions against election fraud – enforceable laws must exist to prevent vote tampering (e.g. double counting, ghost voting). †¢ Recount and contestation procedures – legal mechanisms and processes to review election processes must be established to ensure that elections were conducted properly. 7. Economic Freedom People in a democracy must have some form of economic freedom. This means that the government allows some private ownership of property and businesses, and that the people are allowed to choose their own work and labor unions. The role the government should play in the economy is open to debate, but it is generally accepted that free markets should exist in a democracy and the state should not totally control the economy. Some argue that the state should play a stronger role in countries where great inequality of wealth exists due to past discrimination or other unfair practices. 8. Control of the Abuse of Power Democratic societies try to prevent any elected official or group of people from misusing or abusing their power. One of the most common abuses of power is corruption. Corruption occurs when government officials use public funds for their own benefit or exercise power in an illegal manner. Various methods have been used in different countries to protect against these abuses. Frequently the government is structured to limit the powers of the branches of government: to have independent courts and agencies with power to act against any illegal action by an elected official or branch of  government; to allow for citizen participation and elections; and to check for police abuse of power. 9. Accepting the Results of Elections In democratic elections, there are winners and losers. Often the losers in an election believe so strongly that their party or candidate is the best one, that they refuse to accept the results of the election. This is against democratic principles. The consequences of not accepting the result of an election may be a government that is ineffective and cannot make decisions. It may even result in violence which is also against democracy. 10. Human Rights All democracies strive to respect and protect the human rights of citizens. Human rights mean those values that reflect respect for human life and human dignity. Democracy emphasizes the value of every human being. Examples of human rights include freedom of expression, freedom of association, freedom of assembly, the right to equality and the right to education. All human beings are born with inalienable rights. These human rights empower people to pursue lives of dignity – thus, no government can bestow them but all governments should protect them. Freedom, built on a foundation of justice, tolerance, dignity, and respect – regardless of ethnicity, religion, political association, or social standing – allows people to pursue these fundamental rights. Whereas dictatorships deny human rights, free societies continually strive to attain them. Human rights are interdependent and indivisible; they encompass myriad facets of human existence including social, political, and economic issues. Among the most commonly accepted are: †¢ All people should have the right to express their ideas and opinions. †¢ All people should have the right to participate in government. Governments should create laws that protect human rights while justice systems enforce those laws equally among the population. †¢ Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention, and torture – whether one is an opponent of the  ruling political party, an ethnic minority, or even a common criminal – is a basic human right. A professional police force respects all citizens as it enforces the laws of the nation. †¢ In ethnically diverse nations, religious and ethnic minorities should be free to use their language and maintain their traditions without fear of recrimination from the majority population. Governments should recognize the rights of minorities while respecting the will of the majority. †¢ All people should have the opportunity to work, earn a living, and support their families. †¢ Children deserve special protection. They should receive at least an elementary education, proper nutrition, and healthcare. To maintain human rights, citizens in any free society need to be vigilant. Citizen responsibility – through a variety of participatory activities – ensures that government remains accountable to the people. The family of free nations is committed to work toward protection of human rights. They formalize their commitment through a number of international treaties and covenants on human rights. 11. Multi-Party Systems In order to have a multi-party system, more than one political party must participate in elections and play a role in government. A multi-party system allows for opposition to the party, which wins the election. This helps provide the government with different viewpoints on issues. Additionally, a multi-party system provides voters with a choice of candidates, parties and policies to vote for. Historically, when a country only has one party, the result has been a dictatorship. To preserve and protect individual rights and freedoms, a democratic people must work together to shape the government of their choosing. And the principal way of doing that is through political parties. Political parties are voluntary organizations that link the people and their government. Parties recruit candidates and campaign to elect them to public office, and they mobilize people to participate in selecting government leaders. The majority party (or the party elected to control the offices of government) seeks to enact into law a number of different policies and programs. Parties of the opposition are free to criticize the majority party’s policy ideas and offer their own proposals. Political  parties provide a way for citizens to hold elected party officials accountable for their actions in government. Democratic political parties have faith in the principles of democracy so that they recognize and respect the authority of the elected government even when their party leaders are not in power. Like any democracy, members of various political parties reflect the diversity of the cultures in which they arise. Some are small and built around a set of political beliefs. Others are organized around economic interests, or shared history. Still others are loose alliances of different citizens who may only come together at election time. All democratic political parties, whether they are small movements or large national coalitions, share the values of compromise and tolerance. They know that only through broad alliances and cooperation with other political parties and organizations can they provide the leadership and common vision that will win the support of the people of the nation. Democratic parties recognize that political views are fluid and changeable, and that consensus can often arise out of the clash of ideas and values in peaceful, free, and public debate. The concept of the loyal opposition is central to any democracy. It means that all sides in political debate – however deep their differences – share the fundamental democratic values of freedom of speech and faith, and equal protection under law. Parties that lose elections step into the role of opposition – confident that the political system will continue to protect their right to organize and speak out. In time, their party will have a chance to campaign again for its ideas, and the votes of the people. In a democracy, the struggle between political parties is not a fight for survival, but a competition to serve the people. 12. The Rule of Law In a democracy no one is above the law, not even a king or an elected President. This is called the rule of law. It means that everyone must obey the law and be held accountable if they violate it. Democracy also insists that the law be equally, fairly and consistently enforced. This is sometimes referred to as â€Å"due process of law.† For much of human history, rulers and law were synonymous – law was simply the will of the ruler. A first step away from such tyranny was the notion of rule by law, including the notion  that even a ruler is under the law and should rule by virtue of legal means. Democracies went further by establishing the rule of law. Although no society or government system is problem-free, rule of law protects fundamental political, social, and economic rights and reminds us that tyranny and lawlessness are not the only alternatives. Rule of law means that no individual, president or private citizen, stands above law. Democratic governments exercise authority by way of law and are themselves subject to law’s constraints. Laws should express the will of the people, not the whims of kings, dictators, military officials, religious leaders, or self-appointed political parties. Citizens in democracies are willing to obey the laws of their society, then, because they are submitting to their own rules and regulations. Justice is best achieved when the laws are established by the very people who must obey them. Under the rule of law, a system of strong, independent courts should have the power and authority, resources, and the prestige to hold government officials, even top leaders, accountable to the nation’s laws and regulations. For this reason, judges should be well trained, professional, independent, and impartial. To serve their necessary role in the legal and political system, judges must be committed to the principles of democracy. The laws of a democracy may have many sources: written constitutions; statutes and regulations; religious and ethical teachings; and cultural traditions and practices. Regardless of origin the law should enshrine certain provisions to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens: Under the requirement of equal protection under the law, the law may not be uniquely applicable to any single individual or group. Citizens must be secure from arbitrary arrest and unreasonable search of their homes or the seizure of their personal property. Citizens charged with crimes are entitled to a speedy and public trial, along with the opportunity to confront and question their accusers. If convicted, they may not be subjected to cruel or unusual punishment. Citizens cannot be forced to testify against themselves. This principle protects citizens from coercion, abuse, or torture and greatly reduces the temptation of police to employ such measures. 13. Bill of Rights Many democratic countries also choose to have a bill of rights to protect people against abuse of power. A bill of rights is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country. When a bill of rights becomes part of a country’s constitution, the courts have the power to enforce these rights. A bill of rights limits the power of government and may also impose duties on individuals and organizations. The role of the Non-governmental Organizations In democracies, ordinary citizens may organize independent groups that serve the needs of the community or nation they live in and complement, supplement, or even challenge the work of the government. Such organizations are often called nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs, because they are not an extension of the government’s offices. NGOs allow citizens to improve their society by advocating, educating, and mobilizing attention around major public issues and monitoring the conduct of government and private enterprise. NGOs enable citizens from different backgrounds to learn to work together and build the skills, relationships, and trust necessary for good government. NGOs serve a great variety of citizen interests. They may act as social service providers, advocates for the environment or for living standards, work standards, or as the catalysts for democratic change. NGOs often represent the interests of those citizens who might otherwise be left out of national policy de bates. They open the public discourse to people of all economic and social classes and to women and minorities. Funding for NGOs may come from individual private donations, private trusts and philanthropies, corporations, religious institutions, international institutions, other NGOs, sales of goods and services, and even governments. Governments and NGOs frequently work as partners. NGOs may provide local and regional expertise and personnel on the ground for implementation of government-funded projects. NGOs may be politically unaffiliated, or they may be based on partisan ideals and seek to advance a particular cause or set of causes in the public interest. In either model the key point is that NGOs should operate under minimal political control of states. NGOs develop local and international programs in virtually all areas that contribute to the promotion of the principles of democracy, including: †¢ Human rights  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ by promoting international standards and monitoring for violations and abuses. †¢ Rule of law – through low-cost or free legal aid, educating all citizens regarding their rights, and advocating for legal reforms. †¢ Women’s participation – by preparing them for political participation and protecting them from socioeconomic discrimination. †¢ Civic education – through education programs focusing on the role of the citizen in a democratic and diverse society. †¢ A free press – by promoting independent media, training journalists, and setting standards for ethical journalism. †¢ Political party development – through election monitoring by trained domestic observers and nonpartisan voter registration drives. †¢ Government accountability †“ by conducting policy analysis and serving as watchdogs over governmental actions. Democracy in the EU â€Å"The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail. â€Å" These are universal values and not the values of the Europeans alone. Many countries in the world are recognising and implementing these values or at least have written them down in one or the other form. In order to obtain the objectives of the Union based on the afore-mentioned values, the European Union needs certain powers conferred in a legal framework. It is foreseen that these powers must be exercised using the Community method and specific instruments within a single institutional framework. But through the implementation of these universal values, the European Union has become already a success story that is making membership to the Union so very attractive to its neighbours and an example for other regions in the world= More citizens in Europe live in countries with competitive elections, political freedoms and respect for human rights than ever before. Part of this success story can be attributed – undeniably – to the process of European integration. Paradoxically, however, the European Union also finds itself increasingly the subject of general cynicism and dissatisfaction among its citizenry. Therefore, a better understanding of democracy has become vital at all levels of government, and in particular regarding the future of the EU itself. Proposals for the further democratisation of EU decision-making can be pieced together from at least the following four different dimensions of choice: Intergovernmental vs Supranational Under intergovernmental approaches, the EU is democratised through the elected institutions of its member states. In the contemporary EU, for example, each member country has to ratify any change to EU Treaties according to the democratic mechanism of its choice, with referendums being used in some cases and national parliamentary votes in others. In addition, most important decisions have to be taken by the Council of Ministers on which all national governments are represented. Even with majority voting, this allows national parliaments scope to influence the development of EU policy and hold their governments responsible for their behaviour at Union level . They can review the negotiating positions of their governments before meetings of the Council of Ministers. They can scrutinise draft legislation, which has to be circulated to each national parliament in its own language at least six weeks before it is voted in the Council. They also have important discretion in deciding how EU acquis is to be transposed into national law, since directives only require member states to achieve certain results, without specifying the methods to be employed. Under supranational approaches, entirely new democratic institutions are established at the European level. They are purpose-made for the EU’s political system, and they operate with at least some consistency across the Union as whole. So, for example, the European Parliament is directly elected by all adult citizens of the EU. Its powers, are directed to making law for the Union as a whole, and at scrutinising, criticising and controlling the overall performance of Commission and Council in their role as the EU’s double-headed executive. In brief, it has the power to: †¢ Approve or reject the member states’ choice of Commission and Commission President †¢ Dismiss the Commission on a double majority (two-thirds of votes cast, provided that those voting for a censure comprise more than half of the Parliament’s membership). The resignation of the Santer Commision in March 1999 undermined the argument that this was unlikely ever to happen. †¢ Reject legislation in some areas (Co-decision) and amend it in others (Cooperation). The increasing use of the former means that the EP approaches bicameral status with the Council in a political system where rule-making is, arguably, the main activity. Even the latter allows the EP to structure the choices that are subsequently available to the Council. As the previous examples imply, the EU currently mixes and matches intergovernmental and supranational approaches to democratic politics. Consensus vs Majoritarian Democracy Majoritarian democracy is where decisions can be taken by a bare majority of the public or its representatives. Its proponents argue that any alternative amounts to minority rule. Consensus democracy is where the aim is to align policies with the preferences of the greatest number of citizens or their representatives, rather than with those of a simple majority. Its defenders argue that any alternative allows minorities to be excluded and is not, therefore, rule by the people as a whole. Amongst examples of consensus democracy are the following: †¢ Supermajoritarian decision-rules: these require decisions to be approved by more than 50 per cent of representatives. At present the EU employs supermajorities twice over, in both the Council and the EP. Majority voting in the Council requires 71 per cent of the weighted votes of member states. Most powers of the EP can only be exercised on an absolute majority of its membership. Given normal rates of absenteeism this effectively means that a majority of around two-thirds is usually needed in the EP, as well as the Council of Ministers. †¢ Federal systems: these parcel decision-making out between layers of government. It is rare for the EU to be the only body with powers in an issue area. It normally shares jurisdiction with national and sub-national authorities with which it has to co-ordinate its activities. †¢ Consociational systems: these guarantee the participation of all main cultural units in the most important decisions of a political system. In the EU, for example, all governments nominate at least one Commissioner; all member states have a seat on the Council and the opportunity to hold its rotating Presidency for a period of six months; both Council and Parliament over-represent smaller member states in a manner that underlines the principle that it is national communities — and not just citizens — that are units of value in the EU’s political system; and even the Governing Council of the European Central Bank works on the principle ‘one national central bank, one vote’. Direct vs Indirect Democracy Direct democracy is where the people itself takes major decisions of government. The alternative is that they only exercise public control indirectly through appointed representatives. As will be seen below, this distinction is mainly relevant to prescriptions for the democratisation of the EU, rather than to its current practice. Strategic vs Communicative Democracy Strategic models of democracy presuppose that actors have clear and fixed views of their interests. The main goal of democratic institutions is then to find the most efficient means of aggregating the preferences of individuals into collective actions, albeit subject to various standards of fairness. Communicative models of democracy hold that preferences also need to be debated within the political system, either because they are not fully formed prior to a process of discussion, or because group action is so very different from individual action, both actually and morally. A big question for the EU is whether it can develop a public sphere that all citizens can access as equals, and through the medium of which all points of view can be debated and compared. Connecting European citizens to one another — and to EU institutions — raises problems of language, media, party systems and the associational structure of society, almost all of which are presently organised to support national forms of democracy, rather than a European equivalent. The future of a strong European Union with 27 member states and more will only be possible if rules are implemented which make decisions more democratic, more transparent and thus more efficient. A good and democratic society in the European context is a society which is open to reforms or is able to become a better society – I.e. an active civil society. The European Civil Society can give a new direction to politics. Politicians will then follow. Only a European Civil Society which is better informed about European values, objectives and challenges will give Europe a new impetus to the further democratic development of Europe.